American Journal of Cardiology
Volume 105, Issue 1, Supplement , Pages 3A-9A , 4 January 2010

Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factors: Epidemiology and Risk Assessment

  • Björn Dahlöf, MD

      Affiliations

    • Corresponding Author InformationAddress for reprints: Björn Dahlöf, MD, Department of Medicine, Sahlgrenska University Hospital/östra, SE-416 85 Gothenburg, Sweden

References 

  1. Dzau VJ, Antman EM, Black HR, Hayes DL, Manson JE, Plutzky J, et al. The cardiovascular disease continuum validated: clinical evidence of improved patient outcomes: part I: pathophysiology and clinical trial evidence (risk factors through stable coronary artery disease). Circulation. 2006;114:2850–2870
  2. Yusuf S, Hawken S, Ounpuu S, Dans T, Avezum A, Lanas F, et al. Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study. Lancet. 2004;364:937–952
  3. Gottlieb DJ, Redline S, Nieto FJ, Baldwin CM, Newman AB, Resnick HE, et al. Association of usual sleep duration with hypertension: the Sleep Heart Health Study. Sleep. 2006;29:1009–1014
  4. Gangwisch JE, Heymsfield SB, Boden-Albala B, Buijs RM, Kreier F, Pickering TG, et al. Short sleep duration as a risk factor for hypertension: analyses of the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Hypertension. 2006;47:833–839
  5. Wolk R, Somers VK. Sleep and the metabolic syndrome. Exp Physiol. 2007;92:67–78
  6. Stamler J, Wentworth D, Neaton JD. Is relationship between serum cholesterol and risk of premature death from coronary heart disease continuous and graded? (Findings in 356,222 primary screenees of the Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial (MRFIT)). JAMA. 1986;256:2823–2828
  7. Kannel WB. Risk stratification in hypertension: new insights from the Framingham Study. Am J Hypertens. 2000;13:3S–10S
  8. Meigs JB, D'Agostino RB, Wilson PW, Cupples LA, Nathan DM, Singer DE. Risk variable clustering in the insulin resistance syndrome: the Framingham Offspring Study. Diabetes. 1997;46:1594–1600
  9. Zanchetti A. The hypertensive patient with multiple risk factors: is treatment really so difficult?. Am J Hypertens. 1997;10:223S–229S
  10. Kannel WB. Some lessons in cardiovascular epidemiology from Framingham. Am J Cardiol. 1976;37:269–282
  11. Wilson PW, Kannel WB, Silbershatz H, D'Agostino RB. Clustering of metabolic factors and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 1999;159:1104–1109
  12. Kearney PM, Whelton M, Reynolds K, Muntner P, Whelton PK, He J. Global burden of hypertension: analysis of worldwide data. Lancet. 2005;365:217–223
  13. Zimmet P, Alberti KG, Shaw J. Global and societal implications of the diabetes epidemic. Nature. 2001;414:782–787
  14. Ezzati M, Lopez AD, Rodgers A, Vander Hoorn S, Murray CJ Comparative Risk Assessment Collaborating Group. Selected major risk factors and global and regional burden of disease. Lancet. 2002;360:1347–1360
  15. Ezzati M, Hoorn SV, Rodgers A, Lopez AD, Mathers CD, Murray CJ Comparative Risk Assessment Collaborating Group. Estimates of global and regional potential health gains from reducing multiple major risk factors. Lancet. 2003;362:271–280
  16. Ezzati M, Vander Hoorn S, Lawes CM, Leach R, James WP, Lopez AD, et al. Rethinking the “diseases of affluence” paradigm: global patterns of nutritional risks in relation to economic development. PLoS Med. 2005;2:e133
  17. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Dietz WH, Vinicor F, Bales VS, et al. Prevalence of obesity, diabetes, and obesity-related health risk factors, 2001. JAMA. 2003;289:76–79
  18. Mokdad AH, Serdula MK, Dietz WH, Bowman BA, Marks JS, Koplan JP. The spread of the obesity epidemic in the United States, 1991-1998. JAMA. 1999;282:1519–1522
  19. Mokdad AH, Bowman BA, Ford ES, Vinicor F, Marks JS, Koplan JP. The continuing epidemics of obesity and diabetes in the United States. JAMA. 2001;286:1195–1200
  20. Mokdad AH, Ford ES, Bowman BA, Nelson DE, Engelgau MM, Vinicor F, et al. Diabetes trends in the U.S.: 1990-1998. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:1278–1283
  21. Ford ES. Risks for all-cause mortality, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes associated with the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes Care. 2005;28:1769–1778
  22. Ford ES, Giles WH, Mokdad AH. Increasing prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among U.S. Adults. Diabetes Care. 2004;27:2444–2449
  23. American Heart Association. International Cardiovascular Disease Statistics (2007 Update). http://www.americanheart.org/presenter.jhtml?identifier = 3001008Accessed December 10, 2007
  24. Yach D, Hawkes C, Gould CL, Hofman KJ. The global burden of chronic diseases: overcoming impediments to prevention and control. JAMA. 2004;291;:2616–2620
  25. Thom T, Haase N, Rosamond W, Howard VJ, Rumsfeld J, Manolio T, et al Heart disease and stroke statistics—2006 update: a report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation. 2006;113:e85–e151
  26. Bhatt DL, Steg PG, Ohman EM, Hirsch AT, Ikeda Y, Mas JL, et al. International prevalence, recognition, and treatment of cardiovascular risk factors in outpatients with atherothrombosis. JAMA. 2006;295:180–189
  27. Rose G. Sick individuals and sick populations. Int J Epidemiol. 1985;14:32–38
  28. Emberson J, Whincup P, Morris R, Walker M, Ebrahim S. Evaluating the impact of population and high-risk strategies for the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease. Eur Heart J. 2004;25:484–491
  29. Jackson R, Lawes CM, Bennett DA, Milne RJ, Rodgers A. Treatment with drugs to lower blood pressure and blood cholesterol based on an individual's absolute cardiovascular risk. Lancet. 2005;365:434–441
  30. Boden WE, O'Rourke RA, Teo KK, Hartigan PM, Maron DJ, Kostuk WJ, et al Optimal medical therapy with or without PCI for stable coronary disease. N Engl J Med. 2007;356:1503–1516
  31. Guidelines Committee. 2003 European Society of Hypertension–European Society of Cardiology guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. J Hypertens. 2003;21:1011–1153
  32. National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III). Third Report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III) final report. Circulation. 2002;106:3143–3421
  33. Dawber TR, Kannel WB, Revotskie N, Kagan A. The epidemiology of coronary heart disease—the Framingham Enquiry. Proc R Soc Med. 1962;55:265–271
  34. Hense HW, Schulte H, Löwel H, Assmann G, Keil U. Framingham risk function overestimates risk of coronary heart disease in men and women from Germany: results from the MONICA Augsburg cohort and the PROCAM cohort. Eur Heart J. 2003;24:937–945
  35. Thomsen TF, McGee D, Davidsen M, Jørgensen T. A cross-validation of risk-scores for coronary heart disease mortality based on data from the Glostrup Population Studies and Framingham Heart Study. Int J Epidemiol. 2002;31:817–822
  36. Menotti A, Puddu PE, Lanti M. Comparison of the Framingham risk function-based coronary chart with risk function from an Italian population study. Eur Heart J. 2000;21:365–370
  37. Brindle P, Beswick A, Fahey T, Ebrahim S. Accuracy and impact of risk assessment in the primary prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Heart. 2006;92:1752–1759
  38. Conroy RM, Pyörälä K, Fitzgerald AP, Sans S, Menotti A, De Backer G, et al Estimation of ten-year risk of fatal cardiovascular disease in Europe: the SCORE project. Eur Heart J. 2003;24:987–1003
  39. Graham IM. The importance of total cardiovascular risk assessment in clinical practice. Eur J Gen Pract. 2006;12:148–155
  40. Ridker PM, Buring JE, Rifai N, Cook NR. Development and validation of improved algorithms for the assessment of global cardiovascular risk in women: the Reynolds Risk Score. JAMA. 2007;14;:297;611–619
  41. Hobbs FD, Erhardt L. Acceptance of guideline recommendations and perceived implementation of coronary heart disease prevention among primary care physicians in five European countries: the Reassessing European Attitudes about Cardiovascular Treatment (REACT) survey. Fam Pract. 2002;19:596–604
  42. Barrios V, Escobar C, Calderón A, Echarri R, González-Pedel V, Ruilope LM CONTROLRISK Investigators. Cardiovascular risk profile and risk stratification of the hypertensive population attended by general practitioners and specialists in Spain: the CONTROLRISK study. J Hum Hypertens. 2007;21:479–485
  43. Mancia G, Volpe R, Boros S, Ilardi M, Giannattasio C. Cardiovascular risk profile and blood pressure control in Italian hypertensive patients under specialist care. J Hypertens. 2004;22:51–57
  44. Weber MA. Telmisartan in high-risk cardiovascular patients. Am J Cardiol. 2009;(suppl xx):xxx-xxx.[[this issue]]
  45. The ONTARGET Investigators. Telmisartan, ramipril, or both in patients at high risk for vascular events. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:1547–1559
  46. The European Trial on Reduction of Cardiac Events with Perindopril in Stable Coronary Artery Disease Investigators. Efficacy of perindopril in reduction of cardiovascular events among patients with stable coronary artery disease: randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial (the EUROPA study). Lancet. 2003;362:782–788
  47. De Bacquer D, Pelfrene E, Clays E, Mak R, Moreau M, de Smet P, et al. Perceived job stress and incidence of coronary events: 3-year follow-up of the Belgian Job Stress Project cohort. Am J Epidemiol. 2005;161:434–441

 This work was supported by Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH.

 Statement of author disclosure: Please see the Author Disclosures section at the end of this article.

PII: S0002-9149(09)02482-5

doi: 10.1016/j.amjcard.2009.10.007

American Journal of Cardiology
Volume 105, Issue 1, Supplement , Pages 3A-9A , 4 January 2010